Ethics †Terms to know Essay

Worldview–The way the world is seen & made sense of; framework of individual understanding. e.g. Deism – God abandoned creation Nihilism – Reality has no value; traditional values unfounded Existentialism – Life has no meaning but what we give it Eastern Pantheism – Polytheism, i.e. Hinduism Naturalism – Secular humanism / modernism; God is irrelevant–nothing exists but natural world New Age Pantheism – All is one; no distinction between plants, people; all are God Judeo-Christianity – There is only one God who created universe; God is involved w/ creation Post Modernism – God is dead; truth is a social construct; relativism prevails Ethics–The explicit, philosophical reflection on moral beliefs and practices. (The difference between ethics and morality is similar to the difference between musicology and music. Ethics is a conscious stepping back and reflecting on morality, just as musicology is a conscious reflection on music). Descriptive Ethics–Stating actual moral beliefs. Normative Ethics–Study of what is really right or wrong. Metaethics–Study about field of Ethics. Metaethics Theories Objectivism–There are correct and incorrect answers. Subjectivism–There are no correct or incorrect answers. Absolutism–All moral rules hold without exception–there is only one truth; opposite of relativism, contrasts with consequentialism. Rights–Justified claims upon other(s) for actions or non-actions. Negative Obligation (Right)–An obligation to refrain from something or entitlements to do something without interference from other people. See also autonomy. Positive Obligation (Right)–An obligation to perform / provide, etc., or entitlements that obligate others to do something positive to assist you. In rem–Universal rights (obligations fall on all moral agents). In personam–Restricted rights (obligations fall on selected individuals). General Obligations–moral requirements of all moral beings. Role-related Obligations–moral requirements of specific roles, e.g. MD, priest, etc. Strong Paternalism–Forced acts of beneficence on person able to decide. Weak Paternalism–Forced acts of beneficence on person unable to decide. Negative Paternalism–Refraining from doing something to/for someone. 4 Main Ethical Principles / Values Nonmaleficence–Do no harm; (Primum non nocere – first, do no harm); a negative right. Beneficence–Do good; promoting the welfare of others; actively avoiding harm; a positive right. Autonomy–Non-interference with other’s choices and freedom to make choices / self determination. Justice / Social Justice–Equal treatment for all. Ethical Systems Theories (*Related concepts) *Consequentialism–The end justifies the means; the rightness or wrongness of any action depends on its consequences. *Utilitarianism (act)–To act in a beneficial way based strictly on the good consequences for the most people; case-by-case analysis of each act. *Utilitarianism (rule)– To act in a beneficial way (with good consequences for the most people) based on moral rules; categorical imperative? Deontologism–It’s not whether you win or lose, it’s how you play the game; some actions are right or wrong regardless of their consequences; contrasts with consequentialism. Relativism–it all depends–all points of view are equally valid. Also: When in Rome, do as the Romans do (cultural relativism). Beauty is in the eye of the beholder (personal relativism). *Doctrine of Double Effect–intention is everything; concerns only intended means or ends, not actual means or ends even if predictable (i.e. chemo side-F/Xs). Patient Relationship Models Engineering Model–Just the facts, ma’am; healthcare professionals as scientists presenting facts–patients make decisions based on these facts. Paternalistic Model–Do what I say; decisions are made by healthcare professionals. Contractual Model–Let’s make a deal; healthcare professionals give information–assist patients in decision-making by making recommendations. Confidentiality–Not divulging information which another has revealed on condition of secrecy; patient’s right to privacy (of information). Deontological Argument for the Obligation of Confidentiality–Respecting confidentiality respects patient autonomy. Consequentialistic Argument for the Obligation of Confidentiality–Respecting confidentiality protects and promotes well-being of patients. 3 Accepted Exceptions for Divulging a Patient Confidence–Patient not competent, required by law, protect public interest. Truth Telling (Veracity)–Obligation to tell the truth. Consequentialistic Case for Telling and Withholding the Truth–Do what will most benefit/least harm patient; truth-telling / withholding truth context dependent. 3 (actually 4) Possible Exceptions to the Truth-Telling Rule–Family request, patient request, for the good of others (less so now), avoiding disastrous consequences (extreme cases). 5 Elements of Informed Consent–Competence, information disclosure, understanding, voluntariness, and authorization.

Flat Essay

Lisa Andersen Jeff Kosse, Instructor ENG 105: English Composition I March 13, 2010 Our Modern World The world is flat! One unsuspecting person might think that I’m very naive to make such an assertion. In fact, I’d argue that the other person was rather naive after reading The World is Flat by Thomas L. Friedman and The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsid Hamid. In this essay, I will be explaining how I have come to conceive this notion. Now, what about the companies that do keep their businesses domestic? We, the United States, being a country where many ethnic groups and nationalities have come together, can still face stiff competition. We have immigrants wanting to live in the â€Å"greatest country in the world† so the reputation says. Companies can find people who will do the labor for less, just to have a job. Not only is there competition in laborers, but there’s competition in â€Å"white collar† jobs, as well. It’s all coming down to who has the best education, the ability, and the flexibility. For example, if the demand to relocate or travel is there and if one prospect won’t do it, the company or business will find a candidate who will. There are people in society today who know no boundaries and will do whatever it takes to climb the corporate ladder and if it means going to another country to obtain their desires or dreams, that’s exactly what they will do. This leads to a compelling point in the book, The Reluctant Fundamentalist in which the main character, Changez- a Pakistani, succeeded in earning a coveted job with a prestigious American company (Hamid, 5. This position was not necessarily sought upon because of a yearning to be an American, but rather as a vehicle to success and fortune. The drive for his success with this company was fueled by his desire to prove himself better than the American counterparts as opposed to the success of the prestigious company, itself. Changez had no emotional connection to the United States as evidenced by his indi fference to the attacks on the World Trade Center (Hamid, 72. ) As illustrated by Hamid, if the drive for success is possessed, then no boundaries will get in the way.

The power of the Asantehene

The Ashanti people constitute one of the major tribes in Ghana. Sustainable Development is synergistic with political stability in Africa. Currently, Ghana is trying to bring a balance between traditional leadership which still exists as one of Africa’s richest and oldest monarchy and the modern democracy that has been successfully achieved after the turbulent political past.Most African communities held traditional posts before annexation by the European, but they discarded these roles after independence, adapting instead, the office of a state president. The presence of the Ashanti king also called the Asantehene, is of controversy because Ghana also holds democratic elections and elects a president who is expected to lead the country.The Ashanti king is the symbol of unity for the Ashanti tribes who are the most influential and populous in the country. Past governments have supported the role of the Ashanti king and have supported the revenues and royalties that are given t o him by the different clans. As such, the Ashanti king has remained economically powerful.This thesis will seek to determine the role and the political power of the Ashanti king in Ghana and his influence in the local and regional politics as opposed to the president. The thesis will also evaluate his significance to the Ashanti people and the power and allegiance the people pay to him.I will seek to demonstrate his position in the international community as compared to the elected presidents’ role.Theoretical discussionDuring the fifteenth century, the Europeans were competing for resources to fund their military expansions as well as to take meet the needs of their growing populations. Different empires from Europe explored to different regions including Africa and discovered the vast resources that the continent had to offer. Their interests changed from those of merely exploring the regions to wealth acquisition (Jackson, 154).West Africa had their initial contact with t he Portuguese in 1470 when the first group landed on the shores of the gold coast forming a trading post for the regions timber, gold and ivory and then converting it to the more profitable slave trade.The region became a hot spot with various countries clamoring to secure the unexploited resources for themselves. The French, the British the Swedish and the Danish communities all rushed to the area competing for trade in any of the resources in West Africa.Ghana’s Ashanti people led by Opemsuo Osei Tutu had already established a growing empire before colonization. The origin of the Ashanti monarchical kingdom arose out of a coalition of the people occupying the Pra and Ofin basins. These basins are located in the Twifo and Adanse regions.The specific clans that formed the coalition to come up with the formidable kingdom were the Aduana, the Asene clan, the Oyoko, the Ekoona and the Bretuo clan. The Denkyiras were among the clans that joined the coalition later after being def eated in warfare. The kingdom was established who succeeded in his attempts of forming a unified force of all the Ashanti states (Goldstein, 238).These states were brought together through a common allegiance to the Golden Stool which is also referred to as the Sika Agua Kofi. It is the symbol of a common soul and heritage for the Ashanti people.Social and cultural changes have been evident in many African communities. African communities had established different political systems that were mainly tribal. After colonization and independence, they developed more unifying political positions which were not founded on tribal tenets but were representative of the whole state.Modernization led Ghana to implement a central democratic government after independence in 1957. This was initially led by Kwame Nkrumah and represented the interest of the country at the international arena.Ghana has continued to support and hold its traditional governance roles while it has also adapted modernity trends by implementing a state position for a democratically elected president. Even after independence, Ghana did not dispense with the traditional role of the Ashanti king and though his main role was leading the people into war, his office has remained mainly ornamental, but the royalties and the revenues he collected are still being demanded from the people of Ghana (Ward, 242).The power of the Ashanti kingdom can be traced back to the colonization era when they formed a common empire in their attempts to resist the British. The power and skills that they held allowed them vast dominion over Ghana allowing them expansion in the area.They entered in to endless wrangles with the British who were more interested in amassing the residents’ wealth for themselves and in 1873 Kumasi which was the epicenter of the Ashanti was captured. After unsuccessfully trying to ward of the British, the British managed to exile King Prempeh.They however realized that they still did have cont rol over the Ashanti since the power and authority was symbolized by the stool which was still with the people. The British mandated the people to hand over the golden stool and this was met with a resistance that even the British had not foreseen (Davidson, 182). This led to wide uprisings and the eventual treaty that saw the area being declared as part of the British protectorate, gold coast.The reign of the Asantehene symbolizes a neo-colonial African government which was able to establish itself as an empire within the region and assume control over a lot of populations in Africa (Jackson, 180).It amassed vast masses of wealth and went on to use these resources to establish one of the best military forces in Africa that successfully posed a challenge to the colonization by the British.Though the political system of the Ashanti has been accused of marginalizing its people by leading them into religious sects and exploiting them by dictatorial rule it is still significant in today ’s society and the values and cultures of the kingdom are inculcated in the day to day affairs of the government and the people (Gocking, 163).In the past, the king was mainly responsible for positioning his people in battle and to this end the king established a strong military force which was responsible for the resulting victories at over other governments as well as in ensuring the entire kingdoms security.The continual overthrow of neighboring territories ensured that the kingdom expanded and increased its pool of resources over all other governments in the region. The king also established a national holidays for example the Odwira festival which is celebrated annually.The role of the king has changed with time (Goldstein, 238). The current king of the Ashanti, who is called Otumfuo Osei Tutu II, committed his reign to improving the national unity of the Ghanaian people. He has committed himself to, issues regarding education, improving land reform and enriching the env ironment. The kings’ role is merely that of implementing a seemingly traditional justice within the Ashanti territory.The relationship between the king and the government has been supportive as evidenced by the relationship between the support that the president of Ghana Ignatius Acheampong gave to the Asantehene Opoku Ware in 1970’s after Ghana acquired independence over the disputes which emerged due to the costs of constructing the kings palace.This is mainly because the Ashanti people have amassed great wealth over the years and currently constitute majority of the governments’ opposition wielding a lot of political power and affluence (Ward, 253).The Asantehene has demonstrated support for the democratically elected president, John Kofuor who is the first president to be elected without violence in the country. The king recently warned the former president Mr. Rawlings and his party against uttering derogatory comments aimed at the current president Kofuor and his government (Davidson, 115).

Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 7

Business - Essay Example However, it is the customer base which determines pattern and content of the network. Both international and domestic travelers go through a given transport hub. Thus a wide network of retailers – commercial banks, tour operators, airlines, taxi-cab operators, insurance companies, healthcare providers, restaurateurs, hoteliers, transporters, liquor sellers, motel owners and so on – could be seen operating at different points. Paddington, as a pivotal train interchange, in London in particular and the United Kingdom in general, provides one of the most important focal points for the analysis of the retail marketing business in this transport hub. Paddington is part of the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. The township, along with the station, provides a much needed boost to the Central London’s economy and way of life. Paddington station has a commuter service to the west of London, connecting Slough, Swindon, Reading, Maidenhead and so on. There is also a main-line service to Bristol, Bath, Oxford, Exeter, Taunton, Plymouth, Cornwall, South Wales, Swansea and Cardiff. Then there is the main bus route to Elephant and Castle. Finally there is also the Heathrow Express service to Heathrow Airport. The Elephant and Castle is a major road interchange in the interior of the south London area. In short it is called â€Å"The Elephant† and has of two big roundabouts which in turn are connected by a short road called â€Å"Elephant and Castle†. The Castle Shopping Centre is at the northern roundabout, with Hannibal House, a shopping centre on top. It also has a large residential block known as â€Å"Metro Central Heights†. The Heathrow Airport is located 24 kilometers west of central London and has five Terminals. The 3rd Terminal is connected to both the Elephant and Castle by bus and to Paddington by train/tube. The retail marketing sector plays a much wider significant role here.

Genetics Problems Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Genetics Problems - Coursework Example The gene for fur color distribution is however co-dominant. This gene, S, has two alleles, S1 and S2; S1S1 animals have stripes only; S2S2 animals have spots only; and S1S2 animals have both stripes and spots. The S gene cannot be expressed in white rabbits. 4. A woman XBXb, IA_ whose father was color blind (X-linked, recessive) and who has type A blood has accused a man who is himself color blind XbY, IB_ of fathering her child. The accused man has type B blood. For each of the following cases, indicate whether or not the man might be the father. Explain your answer by including the genotype of the child and demonstrating how that genotype could be produced. 5. In Siberian Huskies base fur color is represented by black & white fur BB, tan/yellow & white fur Bb, and white only fur bb. Siberians all posses two style of fur wire hair (W_) and smooth (ww). What would the genotype and phenotype frequencies be for a true breading white smooth husky with a black/white fur with heterozygous

Problem Recognition Process for the Consumer Assignment

Problem Recognition Process for the Consumer - Assignment Example Thus, realizing that the desired state was a much bigger TV that would be suitable for the interest of both the children and her husband, Alice decided to go for the 32-inch Panasonic flat screen TV, although it cost her considerably. However, the need for a bigger TV was not so urgent, until Alice and her family moved into a bigger house, when they realized that the TV appeared too small for the comfort of watching from the situated sitting positions within the living room. According to the Ordinal utility theory of consumer behavior, situational influences may cause a consumer to realize an existing difference between the real and ideal situation (Lantos, 22). Thus, the movement from one house to the other was a situational factor that caused the need for a new TV to become more urgent. The problem recognition stage was followed by the information search stage, which entailed assessing the available information related both to the different sizes and brand of TVs. The information search stage also entailed evaluating information related to the choice between the purchase of a new TV or a secondhand TV. Thus, Alice had to consult her family, most especially her husband, regarding the most appropriate TV set that should be purchased to replace the small one. Alice also contacted some of her friends in order to here different options available for the range of money she intended to spend on the TV. Evaluation of alternatives entailed low effort processing in evaluating information related to the desirable TV, since advertisement messages were not important considerations in reaching the TV purchasing decision (Roth, 72). Under the evaluation of information, the consideration was the appropriateness of a secondhand TV vs. a new TV, in which the second hand TV appeared to be riskier compared to a new TV, especially regarding quality and durability.

BUSINESS PROPOSAL Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

BUSINESS PROPOSAL - Assignment Example Small Business Administration (SBA) is the Guam’s government official agency that deals with helping in the formulation of business plans and securing funds necessary for its establishment. In the Business plan, investors should include the legal structure of the company. This would be determined by the following factors; investor’s ownership, management responsibilities and tax consequences. The various types of businesses include; sole proprietorship which has advantages like quicker tax preparations, low start up costs and ease of money handling. Its disadvantages include; personal liability and lack of financial control. In the case of starting a corporation, a type of business which has legal rights that separate its liability from the owners’ and it’s chartered by the state (Norman, 1999). To start this kind of business in Guam, investors are required to pay a filing fee of 50$. This levy is used to fill by-laws and articles of incorporation at the G uam Department of Revenue and Taxation. A corporation that seeks to be taxed as a corporation is called a â€Å"C† corporation. It pays federal and income tax on earnings while those that don’t pay income tax on their proportionate shares are called â€Å"S† corporations. ... The EIN can be secured from Internal Revenue Service offices. The Employer Identification Number will be useful in opening of the business bank account. This is done at the initial stage and it is an essential requirement for all companies and businesses that hire employees. The Employers Identification Number is issued to the applicant on the submission of form SS-4 to the Internal Revenue Service. Furthermore, there is an option of applying for the EIN online for instant issuance (Daily, 2010). Next, the investor registers for taxes. All companies incorporated in Guam have a mandate to register for one or several identification numbers that are tax-specific, licenses or permits which includes sales tax, unemployment tax and income tax withholding. According to section 26201, Article two, Chapter twenty six of Title eleven of the Guam Code of Annotated, privilege taxes should be assessed, levied and collected monthly against persons on the basis of their activities and business in G uam determined by application of rate against gross proceeds of sales, values or gross income. Businesses and business owners are required to pay Use Tax under the Guam’s Use Tax law which is applicable on the occasion that one has imported personal property that will be consumed or used in the operations of your business. If the business hires employees, it is required to pay the Payroll Tax (Norman, 1999). Guam has a separate Territorial Tax system apart from the United States based on the Internal Revenue Code. As business owner or entity conducting operations in Guam, is required by this code to file and report a Guam Territorial Tax Return. In title 26 and 31 of this code, business owners are mandated to file form 8300 if the business earns more than ten thousand

LAN Networks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

LAN Networks - Essay Example According to Cache et al., some of the features, in terms of contrast purposes, are problematic due to the lack of a standardized criteria for comparison, such as the security needs of the transmission media format. They include factors such the different type of costs (purchase, maintenance and installation) and the security needs of the medium. This is because there are different types of security threats and each medium of transmission is susceptible to different risks. Some security threats pertain to the mode of intrusion detection or authentication and verification (Cache, J., & Liu, V. 2007). According to White, in terms of data transmission speed from the highest to the lowest with regards to fiber optic cable, twisted pair, satellite, coaxial cable and microwave, they are as listed below:- As an expert, I would advise the entrepreneur wishing to institute a global satellite radio framework in his business to purchase not less than two satellites (GEO). The GEO satellites would then be suspended in a strategic location to ensure adequate connection and data transmission. In addition, the strategic location will ensure that signals transmitted from the satellites are received by the radio satellite. If placed strategically, frequency the transmission frequency will be around 20 GHz and the satellite will orbit almost exponentially if there are no mechanical problems. The most appropriate analogy for a synchronous connection and how it functions is a lift and how it halts in each floor to allow people to enter or exit from the ground floor to the top most floor. Just like a lift, a synchronous connection has a large information amount (passengers entering the lift) in addition to the required data (passengers already in the lift). If the lift has fourteen floors, then the first six floors represent the input messages while the last eight floors are set aside for data

Meditations on First Philosophy Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Meditations on First Philosophy - Article Example example of this is given in the â€Å"letter to the Sorbonne† what it says that great people like Archimedes, Apollonius Pappus and the rest and presented facts which have been universally accepted, though very few understand it’s intricacies for the mere fact they’re quite long and only a reader who exhibits good concentration powers could understand them. Another point of great importance that I picked up was that one’s mind should not be filled with preconceived notions and opinions when trying to weigh the pros and cons and decipher between the right and the wrong. On the other hand, the mind should be detached from any involvement with the senses, so as to provide the person with a clear perspective of thinking. Most people just accept the facts as they are and never bother to oppose or refute it. They present a wrong picture that they have understood it completely and sometimes they commit the great mistake in rejecting the truth. In a subject like geometry the desired result is obtained by strictly following the rules. This is not so in a subject like philosophy because there are two sides to the coin which is open to argument because no argument is free from mistakes. It is only when any argument is thoroughly debated, supplemented and can decide to the extent that they are considered to be absolutely authentic, only then can a declaration or a public statement of the same should be exercised. People who are as intelligent as you would be easily subscribe to the genuineness of your opinion. In the case of atheist, the are considered to be posers more than people who learned or

The Water You drink Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Water You drink - Essay Example This is done by the Aqua Viva Water Treatment Facility which also treats surface. This water is drawn from a number of springs, wells and mine sites. This water is then blended with surface water and disinfected before being distributed in the water system (Towne 123). An assessment conducted on the land uses revealed that the use of these lands poses low levels of risks to both ground water and Main canal water. Though water services department of the city of Yuma treats all water it provides, it is not responsible for amount of lead to them because it does not have the power to control the plumbing techniques used. Despite the high quality the water still has low levels of microbial contaminants, radioactive contaminants and inorganic contaminants (ADWR 23). Works cited Arizona department of water resources (ADWR). Assured and adequate water supply applications. Project files. ADWR Hydrology Division. 2008. Towne Douglas. Ambient groundwater quality in Yuma basin: a 1995 baseline s tudy, ADEQ Open File Report 98-7. Yuma County. 1998. Water Services Department of the City of Yuma. Annual water report: water testing performed in 2010. Water Services Department of the City of Yuma. 2010.

Insurance case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Insurance - Case Study Example shows that he gets around $6Â  875 but there are other factors that need to be taken into consideration with regards to the actual net income he will get. This gross income is subject to tax deductibles. The other issue that the Walter should seriously take into consideration is that he is still young and his family is young too. His family history of BP prevalence makes it imperative for him to prioritize his healthcare issues. It is therefore recommended that Walter should make sure that he together with his family are fully covered in terms of health policies instead of focusing on other activities that are considered luxury. It is imperative for Walter to review his monthly income and expenditure in order to be able to draw a budget that is commensurate with the disposable money available. Walter risks incurring debts that may pose a burden to him if he fails to concentrate on basic things such as life and health insurances on top of other needs. On the other hand, it can be noted that Jessica’s monthly income is little and not consistent since she survives on part time jobs. There are other issues such as tax implications that cannot be evaded so Jessica should make sure that she operates within budget in order to be in a position to meet basic needs in life. Instead of craving for fancy things which expensive at the same time, it is recommended that Jessica should at least focus on pertinent issues that will secure her life in the event of unprecedented scenarios happening. Buying an expensive car on credit does not add value to their lives. Life and health insurances are more important than other luxury expenses that seem to gobble much of her income. In this case, Jessica should revise down expenses such as entertainment, clothing as well as groceries. Essentially, Jessica should prioritize life and insurance issues considering that her children are also under her custody. Indeed, she has responsibility for them. In order to be on the safe side given her

How Do Economic Incentives Affect Social Preferences and Behavior Essay Example for Free

How Do Economic Incentives Affect Social Preferences and Behavior Essay For decades economic theories have relied heavily on the effectiveness of material incentives (Fehr Gachter, 2001). According to the traditional exchange theory all people are exclusively motivated by their own material self-interest. It predicts that the introduction of a penalty will reduce the occurrence of the behavior that is subject to the fine. On the other hand it states that introducing a material incentive will lead to an increase of the behavior related to the bonus. Based on economic theory, incentives have become increasingly popular and are used to increase certain behaviors in various fields including environmental policy (Andersen Sprenger, 2000; Barde Smith, 1997; Baumol Oates, 1988; Kahn, 1995; all cited in ThOgersen, 2003), household surveys (Singer, 2002) and education policy (Fryer, 2011). On the other side, penalties have been used to reduce free-riding (Feldman, Papadimitriou, Chuang, Stoica, 2006), and crimes (Akerlof Dickens, 1982). There is much evidence that supports the basic premise of economics that incentives are effective (Gibbons, 1997; Prendergast, 1999; Lazear, 2000; all cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004). However, a large body of literature in psychology has shown that explicit incentives lead to decreased motivation and reduced performance in the long run (Deci Ryan, 1985; as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004). Titmuss (1970, as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004) was the first who claimed that people might adopt a ‘market mentality’ when they are exposed to explicit economic incentives. He found that paying blood donors for donating blood could actually reduce supply. In the beginning there was little hard evidence that social preferences affected individual behavior, but empirical and theoretical advances over the past decades provide the basis for more support. For example, Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a) found that introducing a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers led to a significant increase in late-coming. There was no reduction in late-coming after the fine was removed. Also Fryer (2011) didn’t find evidence that providing financial incentives to teachers to increase student performance had any effect. Partly because of these findings, terms as trust, reciprocity, gift exchange and fairness have appeared in the empirical study and modeling of principal-agent relationships (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). This highlights the importance of the influence that social preferences have on incentives. Based on the contradictions mentioned above I conclude that a more thorough analysis is needed in order to understand the influence of incentives on behavior. I’ll focus on the interplay between incentives and social preferences and how this affects behavior. In this paper I will review several mechanisms that can explain how incentives can be less effective than economic theories predict and how they can even have counterproductive effects. Furthermore I will indicate the implications of the (non-)effectiveness of incentives for economic policy. Overview of past research According to the definition of Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012), social preferences refer to â€Å"motives such as altruism, reciprocity, intrinsic pleasure in helping others, inequity aversion, ethical commitments and other motives that induce people to help others more than would an own-material-payoff maximizing individual† (p. 4). Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) have indicated the most important types of preferences that have been uncovered by the literature. I will shortly review them below. The first important type of social preference is the preference for reciprocal fairness or reciprocity. An individual is reciprocal when he responds kindly to actions that are perceived as kind, and when he responds hostile to actions that are perceived as hostile. Whether some action is perceived as hostile of kind depends on the unfairness or fairness of the intention and on the consequences that are associated with the action. A second social preference type is inequity aversion. According to Fehr and Schmidt (1999; as cited in Fehr Fischbacher, 2002) â€Å"inequity averse persons want to achieve an equitable distribution of material resources† (p. C3). Inequity averse persons show altruistic behavior if the other persons’ payoffs are below an equitable level. However, if the other persons’ payoffs are exceeding the equitable level an inequity averse person want to decrease the other persons’ payoffs. There are a lot of similarities in the behavior of reciprocal and inequity averse individuals, since both concepts depend in some way on the perception of fairness. Pure altruism is the third type of social preference, which is very different from the former two. Altruism can be seen as an unconditional form of kindness (Fehr Fischbacher, 2002), as an altruistic person would never take an action that decreases another person’s payoff. The problem with pure altruism is that it cannot explain conditional cooperation, that is, people want to increase their voluntary cooperation in response to cooperation of others. The last social preference type that Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) mentioned is envious or spiteful preferences. An envious or spiteful person always values the payoff of other agents negatively. Therefore the envious person is willing to decrease the other agent’s payoff even if it brings along a personal cost to himself. This happens irrespective of fair or unfair behavior of the other agent and irrespective of the pay-off distribution (Fehr Fischbacher, 2002). However, spitefulness can’t explain why it is that the same individuals sometimes are willing to help others at a personal cost, while sometimes they harm other people. Over the past decades, many studies have confirmed that a significant fraction of individuals engage in reciprocal or altruistic behaviors (Buraschi Cornelli, 2002; as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004; Fehr Gachter, 2000). Thus, many individuals do not only care about the material resources allocated to them, but also care about material resources allocated to other relevant agents. To give an overview of the incentive effects on preferences, two distinctions are made: the nature and the causes of incentives (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). Concerning the nature of incentives, people often respond to the mere presence of incentives, rather than to their extent (Gneezy, 2003; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). However, the extent of an incentive may also play a role. Therefore the effects of incentives on social preferences can be either categorical or marginal or a combination of the two. Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012) also make a distinction between 2 causes of incentive effects on preferences. First, incentives can affect the environment in which preferences are learned. When this happens, the preferences are referred to as endogenous preferences. Second, the extent or presence of incentives affect the behavioral salience of an individual’s social preferences. When incentives constitute different states, we refer to social preferences as state-dependent preferences. There are three mechanisms that make social preferences state-dependent. First, by implementing an incentive, the principal discloses information about his intentions, about his beliefs about the target of the incentives and about the targeted behavior. This information might affect the agent’s social preferences which in turn affect the agent’s behavior. Second, incentives provide situational cues for appropriate behavior. Finally, incentives may lead to a crowding out of intrinsic motivations. The crowding-out effect is based on the intuition that the presence of punishments or rewards spoils the reputational value of good deeds. This creates doubt within the individual about the extent to which he performed because of the incentives rather than for himself. This phenomenon is also referred to as the ‘overjustification effect’ (Lepper, Greene, Nisbett, 1973; as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004). In the next part of this paper I’ll give experimental evidence for both endogenous preferences and for all 3 mechanisms that make preferences incentive-state-dependent. Furthermore, I’ll give examples of experiments where crowding in has been found and explain the underlying mechanisms. 1. Endogenous preferences: incentives alter how new preferences are learned Preferences are endogenous if someone’s experiences lead to durable changes in motivations and eventually result in a change in behavior in certain situations (Bowles, 2008). In most cases, experiments have a few hours duration and therefore it’s unlikely to uncover the mechanisms that are involved in the process of durable change of preferences. Although it’s hard to explore the causal mechanisms at work, there exist some experiments that do show a durable learning effect (Irlenbausch Sliwka, 2005; Falkinger, Fehr, Gachter, Winter-Ebmer, 2000; all cited in Bowles, 2008). Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a), for example, examined if the introduction of a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers would lead to reduction of late-coming. However, the amount of late-coming parents didn’t decrease, but increased significantly. Thus incentives led to more self-interested behavior. More importantly, after the fine was removed no reduction in late-coming parents was shown, meaning that there was some durable learning effect going on. 2. State-dependent preferences: incentives provide information about the principal When an incentive is imposed on an agent, he may infer information about the principal who designed the incentive. He may, for example, infer information about the principal’s beliefs regarding the agent, and about the nature of the task that has to be done (Fehr Rockenbach, 2003). This information can lead to a negative response to fines that are imposed by principals. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) designed a sequentially played social dilemma experiment and examined how sanctions intended to prevent cheating affect human altruism. Participants in the role of ‘investor’ could transfer a certain amount of money to another player, the ‘trustee’. The experimenter tripled this amount. After tripling the money, the trustee was given the opportunity to back-transfer some of this money to the investor. The investor could indicate a desired level of the back-transfer before he transferred the money to the trustee. In the incentive-condition the investor even had the option to impose a fine if the trustee would send a back-transfer that was less than the desired amount. Instead of imposing a fine the investor could also choose to decline the use of the fine. The decision of imposing or declining the fine was known to the trustee. In the trust-condition the investor could not make use of incentives. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) found that generous initial transfers by investors were reciprocated with greater back-transfers by trustees. However, the use of the fine reduced the return transfers, while renouncing the fine in the incentive-condition increased back-transfers. This means that sanctions revealing selfish or greedy intentions destroy altruistic cooperation almost completely (Fehr Rockenbach, 2003). In another experiment by Fehr and Schmidt (2007), principals could choose between offering a bonus contract or a combination contract (which was a combination of the bonus contract with a fine) to the employee. What they found was that agents perceive that principals who are less fair are more likely to choose a combined contract and are less likely to pay the announced bonus. Furthermore the effect of effort on the bonus paid is twice as large in the pure bonus condition compared to the combined contract condition. The positive response to the principal’s renunciation of the fine option can be seen as a categorical effect. The threat of a fine led to diminishment of the trustee’s reciprocity. 3. State-dependent preferences: incentives may suggest permissible behavior The experiments that will be described here, differ from the experiments mentioned above in the way that here incentives are implemented exogenously by the experimenter. This means that incentives do not provide any information about the beliefs or intentions of other experimental subjects. In a lot of situations people look for clues of appropriate behavior. These are often provided by incentives. These framing effects have been investigated in many studies. Hoffman, McCabe, Shachat and Smith (1994; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that by making a game sound more competitive after relabeling it, generosity and fair-minded behavior in the participants were diminished. In some other studies (Ellingsen, Johannesson, Munkhammar, Mollerstrom, 2008; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) the framing effect even appeared to have changed subjects’ beliefs about the actions of others. Framing effects can also be induced in other ways than simply renaming the experiment. Providing an incentive may already provide a powerful frame for the decision maker. In an experiment of Schotter, Weiss and Zapater (1996) subjects played an Ultimatum Game experiment in which player 1 is given an endowment and asked to propose a part of this endowment to player 2. Player 2 can either accept or reject this division. If he accepts, the proposed division is implemented. However, if he rejects both players receive nothing. Schotter et al (1996) found that if a market-like competition was included in the game, that is, subjects with lower earnings would be excluded from the second round in the game, player 1 proposed less generous divisions to player 2. Furthermore, lower offers were accepted by player 2. The authors interpreted these results as that implementing market-like competition â€Å"offers justifications for actions that in isolation would be unjustifiable† (p. 38). Thus, providing incentives in the form of a competition can lead to moral disengagement. The framing effects of incentives can occur in cases of government-imposed incentives as well. An example comes from an experiment from Cardenas, Stranlund and Willis (2000) where they studied the effects of external regulatory control of environmental quality. Participants were asked to choose how much time they would spend collecting firewood from a forest, while being aware that this activity has a negative effect on local water quality. Two treatments were considered to examine whether external control may crowd out group-oriented behavior. All subjects played eight initial rounds of the game without any treatment, that is, without being able to communicate with each other and without external regulation. After the initial rounds, one subset of groups played additional rounds in which they were able to communicate. The other subset of groups was confronted with a government-imposed regulation. The regulation also involved the possibility of imposing a fine to subjects that would withdraw too much of the firewood. Although standard economic theory predicted that the regulation would increase group-oriented behavior, this wasn’t the case. When subjects were able to communicate they made way more efficient decisions. However, regulatory external control caused subjects to make decisions that were closer to their self-interest. This means that the fine, although it was insufficient to enforce the social optimum, extinguished the subjects’ ethical aptitudes. 4. State-dependent preferences: incentives may compromise intrinsic motives and self-determination A third reason why social preferences may be state dependent is because providing incentives may lead to motivational crowding out. As Bowles (2008) put it: â€Å"where people derive pleasure from an action per se in the absence of other rewards, the introduction of explicit incentives may ‘overjustify’ the activity and reduce the individual’s sense of autonomy† (p. 607). According to Deci (1975; as cited in Bowles, 2008) the underlying psychological mechanism appears to be a desire for â€Å"feelings of competence and self-determination that are associated with intrinsically motivated behavior† (p. 1607). There is a large body of literature on the psychology of intrinsic motivations going back to the early work of Festinger (1957; as cited in ThOgersen, 2003) and his cognitive dissonance theory. In the past decades a lot of experiments have been done to test the crowding out of intrinsic motivation. One of these studies comes from Gneezy Rustichini (2000b) who tested the effects of monetary incentives on student performance. 180 students were asked to answer 50 questions of an IQ test. They were all paid 60 NIS (New Israeli Shekel) for their participation in the experiment. The students were divided into 4 different groups, which were all corresponding to 4 different treatments. The students in the first treatment group were only asked to answer as many questions as possible. The students in the second group got an extra payment of 10 cents of a NIS per question that they answered correctly. Subjects in the third group were promised 1 NIS, and subjects in the fourth group 3 NIS per question that they answered correctly. The average number of questions correctly was approximately 28 in the first group and declined to 23 in the second group. Furthermore, the number increased to 34 in both the third and the fourth group. The differences in performance were significant. In a second experiment Gneezy Rustichini (2000b) tested the effect of incentives on volunteer work performed by high school children. 180 children were divided into three groups. The subjects in the first group constituted the control group and they were only given a speech about the importance of volunteer work. The second group was given a speech as well, but was also promised to receive 1 per cent of the total amount of donations collected. The third group was promised 10 per cent of the amount collected. The average amount collected was highest in the first group and lowest in the second group. The average amount that was collected by the third group was higher than that of the second group but not as high of the amount that was collected in the first group. Also these results were significant. It appears to indicate that the effect of incentives can be detrimental, at least for small amounts. In another experiment, Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) tested the idea that control aversion based on the self-determination motive is the reason that incentives reduce performance. They used a principal-agent game where agents could choose a level of production that was beneficial for the principal, but costly for themselves. If the agent chose to produce nothing, he would get a maximal pay-off. Before the agent’s decision the principal could decide to leave the choice f production level completely to the agent or to impose a certain lower bound on the agent’s production level. The experimenter varied the bounds across the treatments and the principal could only choose to impose it or not. Results showed that when the principal imposed the bound, the agents chose a lower production level than when the principal didn’t impose a bound. The ‘untrusting’ principals earned half of the profits of those who did trust the agents and thus didn’t impose a bound. In post-surveys, the agents indicated that imposing the lower bound was perceived as a signal of distrust. The results of this experiment suggest that the desire for self-determination and control aversion are not the only effects of imposing the bound. Imposing this minimum was informative for the agents about what the principals’ beliefs were regarding the agents: the principals who imposed the bounds had lower expectations of the agents. Thus, the results in the experiment of Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) seem to be the result of both negative information about the principal (or incentive designer) as well as the result of self-determination. 5. Crowding in Although a lot of experiments show that providing incentives has a negative effect on social preferences, there is also some evidence that crowding in can occur, that is, social preferences and incentives enhance the effect on each other. This might happen when an incentive provides good news about the principal’s type or intentions, for example when he offers the agent a reward rather than a fine. It is also seen in experiments where the incentive designers are peers in a public goods game who pay to punish free riders in order to sustain cooperative behavior (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). The phenomenon of crowding in is interesting since it indicates how policies could be implemented optimally and how incentives and social preferences could become complements rather than substitutes (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). Besides that, it appears that crowding in happens often in Public Goods games and Common Pool Resources games, which display the same characteristics as public policy settings. Below I’ll give an example of an experiment in which crowding in was found. Fehr and Gachter (2000) conducted a public good experiment with and without the opportunity to punish. In the no-punishment treatment the dominant strategy is complete free-riding. In the punishment treatment free-riders could be punished by their altruistic peers, since it was costly for them to punish. Therefore, if there were only selfish individuals, as assumed in economic theory, there wouldn’t be a difference between the two treatments. However, in the no-punishment treatment the contributions of the players were substantially lower than in the punishment treatment. This suggests that powerful motives drive the punishments of free-riders. Furthermore there was evidence that the more free-riders deviated from cooperation, the more they were being punished. There are several mechanisms that can explain the effect of crowding in. In the first place when a peer imposes a fine on a free-rider, this may activate a feeling of shame. Barr (2001; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that just a verbal message of disapproval already can have a positive effect on the free riders’ contributions. A second mechanism that appears to be at work it that nobody wants to be the cooperator while all others are defecting. Shinada and Yamagishi (2007, as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that students cooperated more in a public goods experiment when they were assured that defecting free-riders would be punished. They just didn’t want to be exploited by defectors. A third mechanism underlying crowding in was consistent with the findings of an experiment by Vertova and Galbiati (2010, as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). They found that when a stated obligation was introduced, this produced a larger effect when it was accompanied with a small monetary incentive, rather than with a big incentive or than when no incentives were offered. The authors interpreted this phenomenon as that the salience of the stated obligation is enhanced by large explicit incentives. The latter phenomenon was also found in Ireland, where a small tax was imposed on plastic grocery bags (Rosenthal, 2008; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). After two weeks there was a 94% decline in the use of these bags. This result can be explained by the fact that the introduction of the tax was preceded by a large publicity campaign. Thus, the incentive was implemented jointly with a message of social obligation and it seems that it served as a reminder of the importance of one’s civic duty. Implications for policy Many policies are based on the self-interest hypothesis that predicts that all individuals are self-regarding. However, as we have seen social preferences play an important role as well when it comes down to behavior. This would mean that a lot of current policies are non-optimal. Therefore a big challenge is facing the mechanism designer: how to design optimal fines, taxes or subsidies when the individual’s responses depend on his preferences which in turn are determined by the incentive imposed? In most experiments the effects of incentives were studies and afterwards the mechanisms were identified that could explain the results. However, one of the problems that the designer is facing is that he must determine beforehand how incentives will affect behavior. Based on the experiments that have been done, several guidelines can be drawn. The first is that when crowding out is found, social preferences and incentives are substitutes. This means that a negative effect of incentives is less likely to be found when the social preferences are minimal. In contrast, when social preferences are prevalent among a society, it may be more convenient to reduce the use of incentives. Also, policies that are implemented in order to enhance social preferences will be more effective when incentives are little used. The second stems from Titmuss’s claim that if the crowding out effect is so strong that the incentive has an opposite effect than intended, incentives should be used less. However, in many cases the effectiveness of incentives is not reversed, but blunted and then the implications for the optimal use of incentive isn’t that obvious (Bowles Hwang, 2008). How Bowles Hwang (2008) state it: â€Å"the reduced effectiveness of the incentive associated with crowding out would entail a larger incentive for a planner designing a subsidy to ensure compliance with a quantitative target† (p. 4). Present evidence is insufficient in providing enough guidelines to the policy maker who wants to know ex ante what the effects are of the incentives that he considers to implement (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). What we do know is that the same incentives imposed by individuals who have no personal benefit but only want to promote pro-social behavior (as in the experiment of Fehr Gachter, 2000) are more likely to increase contributions than when imposed by an untrusting principal (Fehr Rockenbach, 2003). Furthermore it seems to be important to let the agent understand that the desired change in behavior would be socially beneficial rather than that the incentive is perceived as a threat to her autonomy or reflecting badly on the designer’s intentions (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). Conclusion The self-interest hypothesis assumes that individuals are only motivated by their own material self-interest. This assumption is used in the design of many policies. However, in the past decades a lot of experiments have shown that other-regarding social preferences rather than self-regarding preferences play a role in behavior. We have seen that some mechanisms can induce pro-socially oriented individuals to behave as they are selfish. On the other hand, there are also examples of experiments in which mechanisms induce self-interested individuals to behave at a more pro-social level. Thus, incentives can lead to both crowding out and crowding in phenomena. Whereas negative information about the principal and the over-justification effect may lead to crowding out of intrinsic motivation to contribute to a good, altruistic punishment by peers who do not benefit personally is more likely to increase contributions. Furthermore it seems important to make individuals aware of their civic duty, as was shown in Ireland where a small tax was imposed on plastic bags. Regarding to public policy, we have seen that small differences in institutional design can lead to many different outcomes. This imposes a big challenge on the policy designer who has to know ex ante what the effects of the incentive that he is considering to implement will be. When social preferences are not present, incentives may have a positive effect, predicted by economic theory. However, in areas where social preferences do play a role, the use of monetary incentives needs to be reconsidered.

A Key And Fundamental Component In Nursing Nursing Essay

A Key And Fundamental Component In Nursing Nursing Essay A methodical analysis of this article will be conducted to also discover if this research is validated and reliable enough to be utilised in practice. As cited by Wood and Janet Ross-Kerr, (2011), the purpose, however of a research critique is to conclude whether the findings are accurately carried out, interpreted, practical and usable for other health profession to implement into practice and take into account. The objective of this research critique is to conduct a critical and scrutinized appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of the selected article in the Nursing Times entitled Why do students fail to disclose health problems?'(Devereux et al, 2012) As highlighted by Boswell and Cannon (2012), the notion of research critiques is to effectively identify the strengths and limitations of a research article. Likewise, Boswell and Cannon (2012) would agree as they articulate that research critique is determining the standards and worth article based on a careful study. This research critique will pay close attention to various elements of the article chosen, for instances, writing style, and title of the article, credibility of the researcher, credibility of the journal, abstract, literature review, how is the purpose of research addressed, research approach, research design or research tradition, research methodology for data collection, sample, settings, tools, ethical issues, procedures, data analysis, the rigour of findings, findings/conclusion, discussion and references. Furthermore, the research critique framework Developing a framework for critiquing health research has been selected to be guided in this critique by Caldwell, Henshaw and Taylor (2011). The underlying reason for electing this framework is because it demonstrates such an accommodating systematic, simplistic and well-grounded approach to critiquing an article as a beginner whilst conducting a good research. Caldwell, Henshaw and Taylor, (2011) points out that this framework intended usage is a teaching device, providing lucidity and help to do an appraisal methodically which was conducted by consisting of apposite questions for quantitative and qualitative research. Why do students fail to disclose health problems? is a chosen article that drew a momentous inquisitiveness and questioning as to why student do actually fail to disclose health problems, which, it could be a range of justified reasons. A title in an article is vital that it reflects correspondingly to the content of an article with the right quantity of words used which this article manages to accomplish. As Parahoo (2006) explains that an article needs a certain amount of words in a title to show that the article has been reflected as it should. The title of the article Why do students fail to disclose health problems? draws to the readers with a short and unambiguous understanding of what the article briefly entails as it is enlightening to read. The aim of the title really captures the main elements of the research; the subject which makes the title effective. The title manages to excel overall in notifying the audience what the article is going about. Penrose and Katz (2010); Ross (2012) would approve of this as they stress that the intention of a title is to tell readers precisely and reflectively what material gathered data will be shown in the article. The title is provocative to the mind to question and contemplate of all the reasons possible to why students fall short to unveil health problems, the title reflects really well on specific the concerns that students do not provide significant important of pre-existing or current health problem. In fact, Oermann and Hays (2010) states that an effective title ought to be concise and cautiously worded to seize the aim of the study and being selective with their words to make it informative for their targeted readers. On the downside, the title essentially refers to students who fails to disclose health problems which is vague and indirect as to which type of students is this article referring to whether it is a university student, college student, medical student, law student, or just any student studying in university. The title should be more in terms of highlighting exact kinds of students that the study is based on as it is questionable as to the article referring to students in general. Therefore, this part of the article lacks the ability to be precise in what students they are targeting in the title. As stated by Rizvi (2005) that in order for a title to be approaching it is important that the title is specific, inclusive, informative and it consists of key words that will show readers to the article. Another weakness of the title is that it consists of eight words; which according to Berg and Latin (2008); Polit Beck (2009); Grinnell Unrau (2008) a title usually is approximately ten to fifteen words for the title to be meaningful. This could be disputed; despite the title being short on words it still upholds the essence on top of the clarity in summarising in the article. The strongest aspect of the authors credibility is that the authors are experts in the field of nursing and have experience in working with student nurses. A research is deemed to be credible and trustworthy when there is a display of reliable account of personal experience regarding the relevant field in the article (Gethin Clune-Mulvaney, 2009). The group of authors that produced this article all obtain suitable academic qualifications such as masters and doctorates. They are in a specialized area relevant to the research; for instance, Julie Devereux is a practice learning capacity coordinator, Pat Hosgood is a senior lecturer/ programme leader foundation degree integrated practice, Barbara A Jack was trained nurse, director, specializing in research methods and Annette M Jinks is a professor of nursing. Jennifer Kirton is a research assistant who has does not have any relevant qualification of in this research field although has obtain a degree in social research. There are a numerous of authors that has played a significant role in this article which shows to a degree its dependability. All the authors qualifications/positions points out an amount of information/experience in this specific area relating to the research article. Coughian, Cronin Ryan (2007) note that a researchers credential and profession position is considered to be a valuable indicator into the authors awareness of the area analysed and capability to ask suitable questions. Conversely, Conkin Dale (2005) debates that a research does not entirely indicate soundness and trustworthiness taking into account the authors qualification rather on its value of the paper. Based on further discovery, the author has had a previous record of publication in other journals which completely certify their credibility (Rubin, Rubin Hardakis, 2010). The abstract of this article falls short to provide a concise summary of the paper which leaves the reader oblivious and provides a small amount of usage to the reader in determining if the article has caught their interest and/or convince them to read more. Normally, abstracts consist of 100 to 200 words (Ingham-Broomfield, 2008). The abstract does not present any focus of the study. The abstract does not succeed to inform readers an outline of the research alongside with the specific objectives, methodology, findings and conclusion. Additionally, as it is supported by many authors; an abstract should be clear and succinct with a general idea of the research, information about its aim, method approaches and results (Marshall, 2005; Conkin Dale, 2005; Coughian, Cronin Ryan, 2007; Polit Beck, 2009; Moule   Goodman, 2009; Rebar et al, 2010). However, the authors manage to highlight and identify the research question in the abstract which reinforces its relevance. The article being critiqued on was issued into the Nursing Times; Nursing Times has been in existence since 1906, it is one of United Kingdoms biggest publishers as it has constant printed materials. It has a reputable publication regarding up to date practices, articles, profession problems and news for nurses in the United Kingdom (Nursing Time, 2013). Consequently, the journal is credible based on their most contemporary article been published in this highly regarded periodical (Rubin et al, 2010). On the contrary, double blinded peer review is a very constructive aspect of this article reason being it illustrates that the research article be unbiased, reliable and impartial as authors are able to truthfully critique an article whilst having their identify camouflaged. Although, it can be argued that double blinded does not literally conceal the authors identify based on their customary approach and conduct of research in a study. The reviewers may effortlessly be familiarised with this. Harris (2012) would support this conception with evidence that there is certainly not a blind process as substantial of reviewers have the ability to detect authors when they cite their previous work into the research, science related methods, writing manner, the contexts of the study. This article has the privilege to obtain a double-blind peer reviewed to be evaluated regarding its quality before being published. Besides, a double blind review adds to the value of articles (Burns Grove, 2009; Gedney et al, 2008). This article contains three numbers of pages does really indicate that there was not sufficient research literature that has been carried out to conduct the study where it maybe just an overview of the study. After a comprehensive examination of the critique, the presentation of the authors writing style does exceptionally well in expressing clarity of their ideas, intentions, findings and discussion in the article. The structure of the text in the article was efficient, well written readable and reader friendly, hence it improves the credibility of the article (Cutcliffe and Ward, 2007). There is no evidence of grammatical error; wrongly use of punctuation, run-on sentence and limited uses of verbosity which made the article easy to follow whilst the authors points are recognized. The occasional use of jargon was indicated in the article

The Working Principle of Milling Machines

The Working Principle of Milling Machines In previous chapter, the literature review piece and objective of present work has been discussed. This chapter introduces the speculative background of response surface methodology, introduction of milling machine, cutting principal, milling cutter taxonomy, machining parameters, chip thickness formation and milling machine parameters which influence the surface roughness 2.1 BACKGROUND As an central subject in the statistical design of experiments, the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques useful for the modeling and analysis of harms in which a response of interest is influenced by several variables and the objective is to optimize this response RSM also quantifies dealings among one or more measured responses and the vital input factors. The DOE++ software was used to develop the untried plan for RSM. The same software has also used to analyze the data collected. After analyzing each response, multiple response optimization technique have performed, either by inspection of the interpretation plots, or with the graphical and arithmetic tools provided for this purpose. It has mentioned previously that RSM designs also help in quantifying the dealings between one or more measured responses and the vital input factors. In order to determine if there stay alive a relationship between the factors and the response variables investigated, the data together must be analyzed in a statistically sound manner using regression. A regression is performed in order to describe the data unruffled whereby an observed, empirical variable (response) is approximated based on a functional bond between the estimated variable, yest and one or further regress or or input variable x1, x2,†¦, xi. The least square technique is being new to fit a model equation containing the said regressors or input variables by minimizing the residual error measured by the sum of s quare deviations between the actual and the probable responses. This involves the calculation of estimates for the regression coefficients, i.e., the coefficients of the representation variables including the intercept or constant term. The calculated coefficients or the model equation need to however be tested for statistical implication. 2.2 MILLING MACHINE 2.2.1 Introduction Milling machines was first invented and developed by Eli Whitney to mass construct interchangeable musket parts. Although makeshift, these machines assisted man in maintain exactness and uniformity while duplicating parts that can not be manufactured with the use of a file. Development and improvement of the milling machine and components continuous, which resulted in the manufacturing of heavier arbors and high speed steel and carbide cutters. These components allowed the operator to remove metal more rapidly, and with more accuracy, than prior machines. Variations of milling machines were also developed to perform special milling operations. During this era, computerized machines has been developed to alleviate error and provide better. Milling are perhaps the most versatile machining operation and most of the shapes can be generated by this action. Unlike turning, shaping and drilling tools, the milling tool possesses a large number of cutting edges. Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or asymmetrical surfaces by feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a integer of cutting edges. The milling machine consists basically of a motor driven spindle, was mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocate regulating worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece. Milling machines are basically classified as vertical or horizontal. These machines is also classified as knee-type, ram-type, manufacturing or bed type, and planer-type. Most milling machines has self-contained exciting drive motors, coolant systems, variable spindle speeds, and power operated table feeds. Milling machines play an significant role in most machine shops, machining metals to various shapes and sizes by means of a revolving cutting tool or tools having a number of cutting edges called teeth. Such tools has known as milling cutters or mills. In order to machine numerous configurations in a milling machine, man have developed various types of milling cutters to fit the necessary requirements. Most milling cutters has made of high speed steel; some employ the utilize of carbide teeth and inserts.[20] The working principle, employed in the metal removing operation on a milling machine, is that the work has rigidly clamped on the board of the machine, or held between centers, and revolving multi-teeth cutter mounted moreover on a spindle or an arbor. The cutter revolves at a fairly high speed and the work fed leisurely past the cutter as shown in figure. The work can be fed in a vertical, longitudinal or cross direction. As the work advances, the cutter-teeth do away with the metal from the work surface to produce the desired shape. [21] Figure2.1: Working Principle of milling operation [21] 2.2.2 Milling Cutter Nomenclature Figure 2.2 shows two views of a common milling cutter with its parts and angles acknowledged. These parts and angles are common to all types of cutters in some form. The pitch refers to the angular distance between like parts on the adjoining teeth. The pitch is unwavering by the number of teeth. The tooth face is the forward facing surface of the tooth which forms the cutting edge. The cutting edge can the angle on each tooth which performs the cutting. The land is the fine surface behind the cutting edge of each tooth. The rake angle is the viewpoint formed between the face of the tooth and the centerline of the cutter. The rake angle defines the cutting edge and provides a path for chips that have cut from the work piece. The primary clearance angle is the viewpoint of the land of each tooth, measured from a line tangent to the centerline of the cutter at the cutting edge. This angle prevents every one tooth from rubbing against the work piece after it makes its cut. The secondary go-ahead angle defines the land of each tooth and provides supplementary clearance for the passage of cutting oil and the chips. Figure 2.2: The two views of a common milling cutter with its parts and angles identified. [21] The hole diameter determines the size of arbor that is essential to mount the milling cutter. A keyway was present on all arbor-swelling cutters for locking the cutter to the arbor. Plain milling cutters that has more than 3/4 inch in width can usually made with spiral or helical teeth. A plain spiral-tooth milling cutter produces a better and smoother draw to a close, and requires less power to operate. A plain helix-tooth milling harvester is especially desirable where an jagged surface or one with holes in it have to be milled. The teeth of milling cutters are either right-hand or left-hand, viewed from the back of the machine. Right-hand milling cutters cut when rotate clockwise; left-hand milling cutters cut when rotated counterclockwise. Saw Teeth: Saw teeth are whichever straight or helical in the smaller size of plain milling cutters, metal slitting saw milling cutters, and closing stages milling cutters. The cutting edge is usually given about 5 ° primary clearance angle. Sometimes the teeth have provided with offset nicks which shatter up the chips and make coarser feeds promising. Formed Teeth: Formed teeth can usually specially made for machining unbalanced surfaces or profiles. The possible varieties of formed-tooth milling cutters are more or less unlimited. Convex, concave, and corner-rounding milling nail clippers are of this type. Inserted Teeth: Inserted teeth had blade of high-speed steel inserted and rigidly held in a blank of machine steel or cast iron. unlike manufacturers bring into play different methods of holding the blades in place. Inserted teeth are more cost-effective and convenient for large-size cutters because of their reasonable initial cost and because worn or broken blades has be replaced more easily and at less price tag 2.2.2.1 Recommended Angles for Milling Cutter The angle between the face and the land of the cutter tooth is called lip angle (ÃŽ ²).Its value depends upon the values of rake and relief angles. A larger lip angle ensures a brawny tooth. As such, the endeavor should be to keep it as large as practicable. This is particularly chief while milling harder metals and when deeper cuts to be employed. Cutters having helical teeth are made to contains a helix angle between 10- (degree) and 50- (degree) the recommended values of principal angles are given in the table [19] Table 2.1: Recommended Angles for Milling Cutter [21] Material Recommend values in degree Rake angle(degree) Relief angles(degrees) H.S.S Tools Stellite Tools Cemented carbides Cast iron(Soft) 10-15 6-8 3-6 4-7 Cast iron(Hard) 10 3-6 0-3 4-7 Mild steel 10-15 3-6 0-(-5) 3-5 Aluminum alloys 20-30 10-15 10-20 10-15 Brasses and Bronzes 10-12 5 2-3 10-15 Mg.alloys 20-30 15-20 15-20 10-12 2.2.3 Machining Parameters 2.2.3.1 Selection of Speed The approximate standards given in may be used as a guide for electing the proper cutting speed. If the operator finds that the machine, the milling cutter, or the work piece cannot be handle suitably at these speeds, instantaneous readjustments shouldcan be made. If carbon steel cutters have used; the speed should be about one-partially the recommended speed in the table. If carbide-tipped cutters are used, the speed could be doubled. If a bountiful supply of cutting oil is theoretical to the milling cutter and the work piece, speeds can be increased 50 to 100 percent. For roughing cuts, a moderate speed and coarse feed often give best results; for last cuts, the best practice is to reverse these conditions, by means of a higher speed and lighter feed. The formula for manipulative spindle speed in revolutions per minute is as follows: Where, Spindle speed (in revolutions per minute). Cutting speed of milling cutter. Diameter of milling cutter (in inches) 2.2.3.2 Selection of Feed The rate of feed, or the speed at which the work piece pass the cutter, determines the time obligatory for cutting a job. In selecting the feed, there are several factors which should be well thought-out are as follows: Forces are exerted against the work piece, the cutter, and their property devices during the cutting process. The force exerted varies directly with the amount of metal unconcerned and can be regulated by the feed and the depth of cut. Therefore, the wrong amount of feed and depth of cut have interrelated, and in turn are dependent upon the rigidity and power of the machine. The feed and depth of cut also depend upon the type of milling cutter being used. For example, deep cuts or foul-mouthed feeds should not be attempted when using a small diameter end milling cutter, as such an attempt would spring or break the cutter. Coarse cutters with muscular cutting teeth can be fed at a faster rate because the chips may be washed out more without problems by the cutting oil. The feed of the milling machine may be selected in inches per minute or millimeters per minute the milling feed has determined by multiplying the chip size (chip per tooth) desired, the integer of teeth on the cutter, and the revolutions per minute of the cutter. Example: the formula used to hit upon the work feed in inches per minute Where Feed rate in inches per minute Chip pert tooth Number of teeth per minute of the milling cutter Figure 2.3 shows the path of feed during the cutting operation. It is usually regarded as standard practice to feed the work piece against the milling cutter. When the piece is fed aligned with the milling cutter, the teeth cut under any weighing machine on the work piece surface and any backlash in the feed screw is taken up by the weakness of cut. As an exception to this recommendation, it is advisable to feed with the milling cutter, when cutting off accumulation, or when milling comparatively deep or long slots. The direction of cutter rotation had related to the behavior in which the work piece is held. The cutter should rotate so that the piece springs away from the cutter; then there will be no predisposition for the force of the cut to loosen the work piece. No milling cutter should be rotated toward the rear as this will break the teeth. Never revolutionize feeds while the cutter is rotating. Figure2.3 Direction of Feed during machining operation [21] 2.2.4 Chip Formation in Milling Operation The scheme of chip formation during plain milling using a straight cutter is explained in figure 2.4. The cutter has a diameter and the depth of cut provided by. When milling is done straight-edge cutter, the operation is orthogonal and the kinematics of chip formation is shown in figure 2.4. Since all the cutting edges take part in machining, a study of the process is facilitated by considering the action of only a single tooth. If is the feed velocity of the table in mm/min, the effective feed per tooth in mm will be, where is the cutter rpm and is the number of teeth in cutter. The material removal rate per unit width of the job is given by. It is clearly seen from figure that the thickness of the uncut material in front of cutting edge increases gradually, reaching a maximum near the surface and again drops to zero quickly. If the feed velocity is small as compared with the circumferential velocity of the cutter, then Figure 2.4: Details of chip formation [22] Where is the angle included by the contact arc at the cutter center O in radians. Now, considering the triangle OAT, we have Hence, Neglecting the higher order terms in as it is normally very small. Using this value of in the expression of the maximum uncut thickness, we get It is obvious that when cutting with a straight cutter, there is no component of the cutting force along the straight cutter axis. The average uncut thickness can be taken as half of the maximum value. Thus, From the above equation show that when the depth of cut increases, the chip thickness increases so that increases the cutting resistance and the amplitude of vibrations. As a result, cutting temperature also rises. Therefore, it is expected that surface quality will deteriorate. When the feed rate increases, the chip thickness increases so that increases in cutting force and vibration. 2.3 SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS Surface roughness is an chief factor when dealing with issues such as friction, lubrication, and wear. It also have a major impact on application involving thermal or electrical confrontation, fluid dynamics, noise and vibration control, dimensional tolerance, and abrasive processes, among others. The resultant roughness fashioned by a machining process can be thought of as the amalgamation of two independent quantities Ideal roughness: Ideal surface roughness was a function of feed and geometry of the tool. It represents the best promising finish which can be obtained for a given tool shape and feed. It can be achieved only if the built-up-edge, chatter and inaccuracies in the machine tool activities are eliminated completely. For a sharp tool without nose radius, the maximum height of disproportion is given by Rmax = f/(cot φ + cot ÃŽ ²) Here f is feed rate, φ is major cutting edge angle and ÃŽ ² is the inconsequential cutting edge angle. The surface roughness assessment is given by Ra = Rmax/4 Idealized model of surface roughness have been without a doubt shown in Figure 2. 5. Practical cutting tools was usually provided with a rounded corner, and figure shows the surface produced by such a tool under ideal conditions. It can be shown that the roughness assessment is personally related to the feed and corner radius by the following expression: Ra=0.0321 f 2/r Where, r is the corner radius. Figure 2.5: Idealized Model of Surface Roughness [20] Natural roughness: In practice, it is not usually possible to achieve environment such as those described above, and normally the natural surface roughness forms a outsized proportion of the actual roughness. One of the main factors causative to natural roughness is the occurrence of a built-up edge and vibration of the machine tool. Thus, superior the built up edge, the rougher would be the surface produced, and factors tending to reduce chip-tool friction and to eradicate or reduce the built-up edge would give improved surface finish. The Principal fundamentals of surfaces are as follows: Surface: The surface of an object is the boundary which separate that object from another substance. Its shape and extent has usually defined by a drawing or descriptive specifications. Profile: It is the form of any specified section through a surface. Roughness: It was defined as closely spaced, irregular deviations on a scale smaller than that of waviness. Roughness may be superimposed on waviness. Roughness is uttered in terms of its height, its width, and its distance on the surface along which it is precise Waviness: It is a recurrent deviation from a flat surface, much like impression on the surface of water. It is measured and described in terms of the freedom between adjacent crests of the waves (waviness width) and height between the crests and valleys of the impression (waviness height). Waviness can be caused by Deflections are tools, dies, or the work piece, Forces or temperature sufficient to cause warp, Un flush lubrication, Vibration Any intermittent mechanical or thermal variations in the system during Manufacturing operations. Flaws: Flaws, or defects, are random irregularities, such as scratches, crack, holes, depressions, seams, moan, or inclusions as shown in Figure 2.5 Lay: Lay or directionality is the direction of the predominant surface pattern and was usually noticeable to the naked eye. Lay direction have been shown in Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Surface Characteristics [20] 2. 3.1 Factors Affecting the Surface Finish Whenever two machined surfaces come in make contact with with one another the quality of the mating parts the stage an important role in the performance and wear of the mating parts. The height, shape, arrangement and track of these surface irregularity on the work piece depend upon a number of factors such as: The machining variables which affect the surface roughness has spiteful speed, feed and depth of cut. The factors of tool geometry which affect to achieve surface draw to a close are nose radius, rake angle, side cutting edge position, cutting edge Work piece and tool material combination and their mechanical property Quality and type of the machine tool new Auxiliary tooling, and lubricant second-hand Vibrations connecting the work piece, machine tool and cutting tool. 2.3.2 Factors Influencing Surface Roughness in Milling Machine The various factors which influence surface roughness of work piece in the milling machine are: Depth of cut: escalating the depth of cut increases the cutting resistance and the amplitude of vibrations. As a result, cutting temperature also rises. Therefore, it has expected that surface eminence will deteriorate. Feed: Experiments show that as feed rate increase surface roughness also increases due to the increase have cutting force and vibration. Cutting speed: It is found that an increase of cutting speed generally improves surface eminence. Engagement of the cutting tool: This factor acts in the same way as the distance downward of cut. Cutting tool wears: The irregularities of the cutting edge due to wear are reproduce on the machined surface. Apart from that, as tool wear increases, other dynamic phenomena such as unwarranted vibrations will occur, thus further deteriorating surface quality. 2.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS In this chapter, the working principal of milling machine is presented. The categorization of milling cutter with its parts and angles are presented. Machining parameters which affect the surface roughness, chip thickness formation and factors influence surface roughness in milling machine are also presented in this chapter.

Orwells Perception of the Political Power of Language Essay -- Politi

Orwell's Perception of the Political Power of Language As an author, George Orwell is concerned with the modern use and misuse of the English language. He notes the recognized ability of language to distort truth and deceive masses in his essay "Politics and the English Language", and attempts to alert the public of this power in his novel Nineteen-Eighty-Four . Depicting dystopia of a totalitarian system at a complete extreme, Orwelll's novel is essentially about psychological control of the public. In the creation of "Newspeak", Orwell portrays the effects of recurring abuse of language by government, and demonstrates how language can be used politically to manipulate minds on a monumental scale, eventually birthing a society in which people obey the government unquestionably. As argued in his essay and actualized in the novel, language acts as an instrument of mind-control, with the goal of perpetual elimination of individual consciousness and maintenance of a totalitarian regime. Orwell's essay begins with the understanding that "†¦the present political chaos is connected with the decay of language". In evaluating trends in current language, such as the use of pretentious diction and meaningless words, he argues that an individual morphs into a type of human machine , simply regurgitating information without involving any of his or her own thoughts. As Orwell says in the essay, "Political language . . . is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind" . In Nineteen-Eighty-Four, this phenomenon is depicted in the development of Newspeak. Developed chiefly to restrict the range of one's thought and shorten memory, Newspeak is an ideal language for a totali... ...mps: this is called elimination of unreliable elements" . Thus the use of Newspeak in Oceania similarly serves to uphold political obedience. As the Inner Party has the ability to alter the structure of language in Nineteen-Eighty-Four, it makes the conception of nonconformist and rebellious thought impossible, thus eliminating any questioning of the Party's absolute power. Both Orwell's novel and essay carry a grave warning about the political powers of language. He uses his media to demonstrate not only how language can cloak truth, but also how language can be used as an ultimate tool for maintenance of totalitarian regimes. While language is usually thought to extend cultural considerations and improve one's understanding of the world, Orwell's works illustrate how it can, when used in a vicious political way, become an instrument against human consciousness.

Jurgen Habermass Concept of Public Sphere :: essays research papers

Jurgen Habermas's concept of Public Sphere Jurgen Habermas developed the concept of Public Sphere, an open network to facilitate exchanges, as a part of a larger project dealing with the paradoxical consequences of rational western capitalism. The project is deeply rooted in Weber's reflections on the role of religion (Calvinism) in the development of capitalism in the North-Atlantic Rim, and the Marxist critique of such reflections as laid out by the members of the Frankfurt School (Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer). Adorno and Horkheimer, however, found themselves at a deadend when they were unable to de-reify their own concept of culture. It is precisely there where Habermas breaks away from the concerns of the Frankfurt School and begins his own reflection that, on the one hand, de-reifies the concept of culture (culture uiltimately is a product of institutions and human interaction and not a variable with life of its own, as Adorno and Horkheimer assumed at some point). Habermas stand on the development of capitalism leads him to recapture an insight from the old Marx: capitalism, with all its contradictions and fallacies, has the seed of its own transformation (destruction for Marx) in the form of the exchanges that it encourages, but mostly because of its very need of rational domination. If rational domination is required (as opposed to traditional or charismatic), then it is necessary to discoursevely build the agreements that the law embodies. If so, then institutions like the Parliament are unavoidable and with it some discussion of public issues and concerns. Habermas finds the origin of such discussions and concerns in the emergence of coffee-houses all over Europe during the Enlightenment era. Of course, participation in such activities was heavily restricted by class and in some cases (the European Jewish populations are a perfect example of it) by race and/or ethnicity. Habermas finds that even if such restrictions exist, the drive of the Enlightenment project will be enough to allow for progressive openings, that over time will prevent against discrimination. Habermas is well aware of the limitations of his model.

JFK: Alliance For Progress :: essays research papers

The dawning of the sixties erupted with John F. Kennedy as President, the beginning of an anti-war movement, and the fear of communism. It was a new decade and called for many changes, domestic and foreign. New policies were initiated in the hopes for a better economy and relations with other countries. In 1961, President Kennedy called for the establishment of the Alliance for Progress. The program was aimed towards promoting the social and economic development of Latin America. Kennedy proposed this cooperative program to replace prior failing efforts of the United States to aid Latin America. The intended alliance marked a shift toward a policy of expanded U.S. economic assistance to Latin America in the wake of Fidel Castro’s successful Communist revolution in Cuba. The United States was fearful of a communism spread due to the poverty and social inequities of the Latin American nations. The U.S. felt that the southern continent was ripe for violent radical political upheaval, which would eventually bring forth the spread of communism. The Alliance for Progress program was initially met with open arms by most Latin Americans leaders and immediately boosted U.S. relations throughout the hemisphere.1 The alliance’s charter was signed by all members of the organization except for Cuba at a special meeting at Punta del Este, Uruguay, on August 17, 1961.2 The drafters of the charter emphasized that the twin goals of economic development and social injustice should be pursued simultaneously and that both should be paralleled by efforts to expand political freedom in the hemisphere. One of the most important factors of the program was the promotion of self-help. Under the alliance’s charter, the participating Latin American countries would provide eighty percent of the funding and the remaining twenty would be pledged by external sources, which would be furnished by the United states, other wealthy countries, and a variety of public and private groups. Though created to ensure the improvement of Latin Americ a, there were many dilemmas within the Alliance for Progress. The program was not really an alliance and it did not progress satisfactorily. The wealthy naturally wanted to remain in the position in society and were blind to the fact that it was hastening a Communist takeover. Contributions to the destitute countries of Latin America often found its way into the wallets of the wealthy instead of profiting the poor. The initiator of the Alliance for Progress was the elected 35th president, John F.

Technology in Oncology Nursing

Information technology has made improvements to patient safety. Access to patient information and records that is needed to develop and implement the plan of care can be obtained immediately at the bedside because of technology such as pagers and wireless devices. In some facilities, alerts are produced as â€Å"triggers† for patient safety concerns such as adverse drug reactions or abnormal laboratory' data. These alerts are beneficial in oncology nursing as the nurse is warned of low blood counts or kidney functions before administering chemotherapy.Interdisciplinary communication has become ore convenient, especially in the case of an emergency because of technology advancements (Bake et al. , 2004). Therefore, the provider can be notified immediately of an adverse reaction to a chemotherapy agent for example. Use of technology is proving to be more efficient through research in the nursing practice. Patient data collected on paper contains a higher number of entry errors, higher costs, and more time spent on reviewing the data when compared to electronic methods.The nurse can quickly assess patient data such laboratory result, obtain a new physician order, and discuss t with the patient without ever leaving the bedside. The nurse is allowed an increase in autonomy because of these advancement methods (Hardwire, Paid, & Delano, 2007). Autonomy is critical for an outpatient oncology setting. The patient's care is under the direction of the nurse and in the case of a reaction event quick, efficient decisions must be made for the well-being of the patient. In addition to safety and efficiency, technology has aided in the patient-centered focus of the nursing practice.Practitioners are more likely to follow the standard of care with fewer variations when informatics is seed. In turn, better patient outcomes are likely to follow. When a standard of care is used, the nurse can better know how to educate his or her patients regarding the plan of care (Hardwi re et al. , 2007). In oncology, research trials are frequently conducted to obtain more information on treatment options. Bioethics principles are incorporated into these studies for the benefit of those involved. The principles of beneficence, maleficent, justice, and autonomy are discussed.Beneficence declares that research should not cause harm (maleficent) to participants, but are instead intended to benefit he participant and others (Polio & Beck, 2012). In other words, the oncology patient may undergo a chemotherapy study without being harmed in order to draw a conclusion on the benefits of the treatment for the future. The patient is able to withdraw participation in the study at any time (Polio & Beck, 2012). Information technology has impacted this principle due to the increases in safety measures previously discussed by Bake et al (2004).Justice provides the patient with privacy acts and fairness in the trial selection (Polio & Beck, 2012). Information technology can be in corporated into this principal since practitioners are more likely to follow the standards of the trial for participant selection when informatics is used instead of selecting a vulnerable population. Therefore, better patient outcomes are likely to follow (Hardwire et al. , 2007). Lastly, autonomy for the patient could be altered by information technology. Researchers may collect data through electronic means without the knowledge or consent of the subjects.